Research methods - chapter 2

What are the data in psychology?

The data in psychology are observations of behavior.

How do facts and constructs differ?

Facts are directly observed, whereas constructs are inferences about unseen mechanisms, drawn to explain observations.

What is reification of a construct?

Reification of a construct means believing that the construct is a fact.

Explain the two ways in which constructs relate to facts.

Constructs are based on facts and are used to predict new facts.

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?

Going from empirical observations to constructs is inductive reasoning; going from constructs to predictions is deductive reasoning.

What is a theory, and how is it useful in science?

A theory is a formalized set of concepts that summarizes and organizes observations and inferences, provides tentative explanations for phenomena, and provides the foundation for making predictions.

What is the difference between inductive and deductive theories?

Inductive theories depend heavily on empirical observations, whereas deductive theories go well beyond the existing data and encourage the testing of new predictions from theories.

What is a model, and how is it used in science?

A model is a miniature representation of reality. Scientists construct and examine models to provide insights into natural phenomena.

Distinguish between observation and inference.

Observations are the facts of research, whereas inferences are inductive leaps beyond the observations.

Why should we judge theories on both their usefulness and their accuracy?

Many technically incorrect theories nevertheless make accurate predictions in many situations and therefore are useful in these situations.

What is meant by falsifiability in science?

Falsifiability is the principle that, for a theory to be scientific, there must be some evidence that, if found, would lead to a rejection of the theory.

What are the two main dimensions of the model of research presented in this section?

The two dimensions in our model of research are (1) levels of constraint, and (2) phases of research.

Name the phases of research.

The phases of research are (1) idea generation, (2) problem definition, (3) procedures design, (4) observation, (5) data analysis, (6) interpretation, and (7) communication.

Define levels of constraint.

Levels of constraint refer to a continuum of demands on the adequacy of information and the level of control used during the observation phase.

What is the major difference between differential and experimental research?

The groups in differential research are naturally occurring, whereas the groups in experimental research are formed through random assignment.

In which phases of research do we need to consider ethical issues?

Ethical issues need to be anticipated and addressed in the procedures-design phase before proceeding any further in the research. We must also remain sensitive to ethical issues throughout the research.

Who bears the responsibility for ethical conduct of a research project?

Each researcher bears the major responsibility for the ethical conduct of the research.

What is the first basic assumption that scientists accept about the universe?

That the physical universe exists.

What is the second and third basic assumption that scientists accept about the universe?

That the universe is primarily an orderly system and that the principles of this orderly universe can be discovered, particularly through scientific research;.

What is the fourth basic assumption that scientists accept about the universe?

Knowledge of the universe is always incomplete. New knowledge should alter current ideas and theories. Therefore, all knowledge and theories are tentative.